| Primary output | Published papers and conference contributions | Working systems, technical evaluations, and written artifacts |
| Audience | Peer reviewers and the academic research community | Technical decision-makers inside a client organization |
| Cadence | Multi-year research and publication cycles | Weeks to months per engagement |
| Reproducibility standard | Open-sourced code and data; reproducible by any reader | Client-owned reproducibility for the engagement context |
| Funding model | Federal grants, institutional funding, fellowships | Engagement fees against a defined scope or retainer |
| Success criteria | Novelty, methodological contribution, citation impact | Operational fit, defensibility, deployment-readiness |